Security and discipline Essay Example for Free

Security and discipline Essay Discipline normalizes; it fixes the process of training and permanent control. An optimal model will be the one that gives a certain result. Disciplinary normalization consists in trying to get people and their actions to conform this model and norm. Example of smallpox: they developed a mechanism of security with a double integration: rationalization of chance and probabilities. On typical practices of security we see a number of elements emerging that are absolutely important for later extension of apparatuses of security: 1) practice of inoculation: supervision of those inoculated: observing the risks of dying from inoculation or from smallpox. Here appears in the text the term on â€Å"prevailing disease† which is a kind of disease that unites a country or climate. Integrating individual phenomena within a collective field 2) the disease is accessible to a group, it is then accessible to individuals 3) risk is not the same for all individuals, of all ages, or conditions CRISIS: phenomena of sudden worsening and increase of the disease. The phenomenom of sudden, circular bolting that can only be checked either by a higher natural mechanism or by and artificial mechanism. The apparatus that appears with variolisation vaccination consists not in the division of those who are sick and those who are not. It identifies the coefficient of probable morbidity, the normal expectation of population of being affected by the disease. Foucault thinks we have a system exatly the opposite to the one we have seen with the disciplines. In the disciplenes one started from a norm. Here we have a plotting of the normal and the abnormal, of different curves od normality, and the operation of normality consists in stablishing an interplay between different distributions of normality. Points out the problem of contagion. AS A CONCLUSION: Foucault thinks that the integration of the town within central mechanisms of power, or better, the inversion that made the town the primary problem, even before the problem of the territory, is a phenomenom, a reversal, typical of what took place between the seventeenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century. It was a problem to which it really was necessary to respond with new mechanisms of power whose form in no doubt found is what he calls mecanisms of security. Another problem for him is: circulation, exchange and contact. He links this to the idea of sovereignty. SOOO.. the mechanism of security does nt function on the axis of the sovereign subjects relationship, ensuring the total and as it were passive obedicence of individuals to their sovereign. In the following pages the author says that population can only be the basis of the state’s wealth and power if it its framed by a regulatory apparatus. Here appears the term of desire: every individual has one. The sovereign is the person who can say no ti an individuals desire, the problem is how to legitimize this â€Å"no† opposed to individuals desire and found it on the will of these same individuals.

Karl Marx Notion Of Ideologies

Karl Marx Notion Of Ideologies This paper critically explores how Antonio Gramsci builds on Karl Marxs notion of ideology. It also compares Antonio Gramsci and Max Weber with regard to class, status and political party. The paper is organized on the major aspects and deficiencies of Marxist ideology which Gramsci builds on and as such, how Gramsci builds on Marxist ideology is based on: ideological basis, hegemony, historicism, class differences, historicism, materialistic theory of history and its concepts, Economic determinism, dialectic views, realism and modernism. The last sections of this paper focus on Gramsci and Weber with regard to class, status and political party. Antonio Gramsci work of the 19th century to a large extent was built on Marxist thinking about ideology and consciousness as it gave ideology (initially developed by Karl Marx ) a more active role in history and politics than in classical historical materialism. According to Gramsci, the proletariat is able to influence terms of its consciousness resulting in an extended struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat regarding how the existing social reality is represented. He continues to suggest that the bourgeoisie in general exercises hegemony over the terms of ideology through its control of the consciousness and its instruments. However, according to Gramsci, the proletariat is able to exert its influence through cultural institutions initially mentioned above thus introducing major changes in classical ideological theories by denial of the subordinate class which is compared to the passive tool of dominant ideology. Gramsci uses the concept of hegemony which was previously used by Marxists to indicate the political influences of the working class in a democratic revolution. He develops this concept into an acute analysis to explain the reason for the socialist revolution predicted by orthodox Marxism not having occurred by the early 20th century. By developing on the Marxists concept, he suggests that capitalism remained entrenched than ever and it maintained control ideologically through a hegemonic culture and through violence, political and economic coercion. Therefore according to Gramsci, when a culture develops in which Marxists owners of the means of production identified their own good with the good of the bourgeoisie, and facilitated the maintenance of the status quo which Marxists attribute to class differences. Gramscis further builds on Marxists ideology of class differences by suggesting that for any aspiring class to dominate in modernism it has to go beyond its own economic-corporate interests, to exert intellectual and moral leadership, and to make alliances and compromises with a variety of forces, which he refers to as a historic bloc which forms the determinant to a particular social order that produces and re-produces the hegemony of the dominant class. This is built on Marxist ideology on the materialistic theory of history concept of relations of production in which he points out that the non owners of the means of production in order to produce a means of livelihood facilitate the economic dominance of the dominating class further creating class differences in society (p.33). Like Karl Marx, Gramsci was an ardent proponent of historicism. Gramscis view like Marxs points out that all meaning derives from the relation between human practical activities of which part is historical and social processes which are objective. He further builds on Marxs ideology by asserting that Ideas cannot be understood outside their social and historical context, apart from their function and origin. According to Gramsci, the basis of organization of knowledge of the world is not primarily derived from peoples relationship to things but between the social relations between the users of such concepts therefore the issue of unchanging human nature does not occur. He suggests that philosophy and science dont portray independence of man in reality but are only reliable if they express the real development trends of a given historical situation. This is further elucidated by the fact of Gramsci belief that Marxism was truthful socio-pragmatically because by articulating the class consciousness of the proletariat, it highlighted the truth of tits times better than any other theory. While criticizing Marxist capitalist forces of production, Gramsci builds his argument by claiming that the revolution in Russia had made the idea of socialist revolution awaiting the full development of capitalist forces of production invalid and he suggests that the primacy of the forces of production according to Marxists was a misconception because both economic and cultural changes are expressions of the basic historical process and none has primacy over the other. Therefore according to Gramsci, Marxism is a philosophy of praxis, and it cant depnd on historical laws which are not seen as the agents of social change. Gramscis inspiration is derived from Marx, but he expresses disagreement with Marxs focus on economic importance. According to Marx, the economy was predetermined through history and is a determinant of the rest of society (economic determinism) Building on this, Gramsci saw that the depiction of the superstructure (civil society), focused only on the economy and did not mention cultural realm as an important factor and is therefore negligent that culture has the ability to effect change. While Marx withheld negative perception that ideology was a distortion of what people perceive as reality that is achieved through the ruling classs ability who make their interests appear to be the interests of everyone, Gramsci, on the other hand, perceives ideology positively, and acknowledges many groups in society despite those based in class which compete with each other and have different perspectives. He calls the winning of consent as hegemony which operates through sustained reproduction o f ideology over a period of time till the perspectives of dominant groups are perceived to be legitimate and incase of absence of consent, it is through coercion to enforce dominance. According to Gramsci, consent is achieved through civil society (family, church, education system, and media). Marxs ideological concept regarding ideology was epistemological as it pointed out that ideology opposed knowledge which was grounded ion science and reasoning. According to Gramsci, people have two theoretical consciousnesses: one which is implicit in activity and another which is superficially explicit or verbal which is uncritically absorbed from the past. A large number of Gramscis theoretical concerns are almost similar and therefore built on the general questions of ideology and Marxist aesthetics, particularly because they have been highlighted as a result of the work of George Lukà ¡cs, one of the major proponents in the realism/modernism debate who is also a major Marxist aesthetician. For example, Gramsci builds on the way which Lukà ¡cs aesthetically and culturally confronted the immediate advent of fascism (Holub Renate, p.3). According to Holub Renate (3), Gramsci builds on and exceeds many concerns of received Marxism when he relates realism and modernism problems to transformations in structural modern world, examines phenomena related to effect and production of industrialization due to culture, studies production of significance in linguistic and phenomenological framework which anticipates a cluster of structural linguistics and a kind of a phenomenological critical theory , carries out a critical practice which is suggestive in terms of contemporary critical theory in terms of differential pragmatics. Holub Renate, (p. 6) suggests that Gramsci builds on Marx ideology by rethinking and Reconsidering Marxist theory and strategy with reference from dialectic questions to ideological theories, culture and the state. He further suggests that the rethinking of formidable occurrences in history resulted to key notions (political and civil society, hegemony, counter-hegemony his idea of the intellectual/organic intellectual) being conceptualized and such notions were later associated with him. In Gramscis concept of the intellectual, as perceived by Holub Renate Gramsci conceptualizes directed reproduction and dissemination of an effective hegemony, and collaborates in the Marxist intellectuals theoretical project hence using this approach, Gramsci builds on Marxist ideology. Additionally, Holub Renate (11) refers to Marxis text as being representative, along with those of Korsch and Lukà ¡cs, of early western Marxism. Gramscis further builds on Marx ideology regarding his treatment of realism in the context of Marxist aesthetics. Though Gramsci does not share some theoretical assumptions with Lukacs, his texts evolve against a background or a structure of concerns which he has in common with Lukà ¡cs (12), who is an ardent Marxist aesthetician. Again, the way in which Gramscis work displays its theory is homologous to many pivotal twentieth-century Marxist ways of theorizing for example when he relates realism and modernism problems to structural al transformations of the modern life world. He also builds on Lukà ¡cs work of cultural-aesthetic confrontation of the immediate advent of fascism and according to Holub Renate (15) he replays the realist/modernist drama, enacted by Lukà ¡cs {a Marxist Aeathetecian} on the one hand and by supporters of modernism on the other hand à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ his mode of approaching the problems of modernism and modernity, his way of posing questions and problemati zing issues of technologization, is similar to Marxist approach and therefore he builds on the ideology of Marxism. Holub Renate views Gramscis analysis of modernisms cultural problems, reflections on an anticipatory sensibility to very complex socio-cultural transformations and flexibility in adjusting previous concepts (by Marxists and other sociologists) as a building block in his new experiments and inventions so as to grasp new political and social realities .according to Holub Renate in his writings about Gramsci ideology, he confesses that he finds it difficult to separate Gramsci from the Marxist crowd in order to exclusively identify him with the German critical theory of the 19th century possibly as his work is built on the Marxist perception. Holub Renate further suggests that Marxist intellectuals are interested in literary problems, but Gramsci refused to perceive literature as unrelated to social life and political activity. So when Gramsci re-examined the significance of literature and how it is related to politics i.e. the failed revolution on one hand and fascism on the other, he builds on basic premises of Marxist aesthetics which states problems of culture are not separable from the realm of politics and hence production and circulation of cultural goods e.g. literature are related to production and circulation of political, ethical and moral values and norms. Gramscis thoughts in most cases are homologous or built on the critical theories of modernism and therefore there are multiple relations between his thinking and various other forms of critical theory forms of critical theory an example being neo-Marxism, Marxist linguistics, Frankfurt School modernism and critical phenomenology. Gramscis analyses relations of power and function performed by intellectual activities in the course of these relations and he builds on this to formulate the intellectual theory with models such as the traditional intellectual: artist, philosopher and poet, structure of feeling, intellectual community à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ The organic intellectual à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the critical specialistà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the universal intellectual. Therefore, these models incorporate instances of power and is therefore built on a Marxist account and idealism of social function and responsibilities of the individualas it outlines the non neutrality of knowledge and ideas and partiality of the producers and disseminators of knowledge therefore the political trigger of the intellectual that inscribes power and domination (i.e. social classes having owners and non owners of the means of production according to Karl marx). Therefore Gramsci by deriving the intellectual models was primarily focusing on a determinate body of knowledge which is depicted in Marx and Engels writings as well as in the anti-Marxist writings of philosophers of the twentieth century Italian cultural history e.g. Benedetto Croce. According to Holub Renate, he terms Gramcis work as as aesthetic fragments under the general heading of Marxism and literature, therefore depicting the notion that Gramscis work is a fragment of Marxism or is derived from Marxist ide ology. Gramsci builds on Marxist ideology by deploying his skills to attempt to amend Marxist theories where they are most deficient and vulnerable (39) e.g. by relating superstructure to Marxs infrastructure which changes the perception of Marxs forces of production and relations of production as being the major concepts of materialistic history of theory. Therefore Gramsci derives and build on Lukacs definitive Marxist aesthetics and ideology by organizing his work around a cultural and political critique in his philosophy of praxis. Gramsci builds on the deficiency of Marxist ideology in exploring the ways that the superstructure, its culture, politics and ideology are linked to the base, and by exploring the several ways which the state, culture and politics result in production of ideology, power and authority. His unrelenting interest in the realm of the superstructure unlike the base was just an attempt to build on Marxist ideology by attempting to correct Marxist theory in the areas which it looked very deficient. According to Holub Renate (42), he argues that Gramsci built on Marxist dialectic on superstructure as he was a student and proponent of the work of Antonio Labriola who was an Italian Marxist who opted for a Hegelian basis of interpreting Marx dialectic amidst the theoreticians of the second international. He further strengthens his argument that: Marxist aesthetics, particularly in the Lukà ¡csian version, tended to ignore new cultural formations when measuring art against a new set of aesthetics. Gramsci does both and more (48). Gramscis ideology had a different view of Marxist historical materialism which he saw as infantilism. According to him, political acts were an organisational matter which facilitated party, group and societal coherence. These parallels are eminent with Webers status groups, though Weber criticizes the economism of certain aspects of historical materialism which he highlighted in his Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. On the other hand, Gramscis thoughts were anti-economist, but relied liberalism that claimed that the economy was a pure determinant of socio-political relations. His statement suggests that in certain ways, Gramcis perceptions are in agreement with Webers anti-positivism which gives the suggestion that both Weber and Gramcis works criticised both Marxist and liberal economism and positivism. The most pararrelism between Weber and Gramsci emanates from Weberian views on individual action. Regarding this concept, Weber perceives collectivities to be results of certain individual acts while Gramsci on the other hand perceives a collective will embodied in the party. According to Weber inexorable social forces were not a causative factor of conduct and Weber seems to disagree with Gramscis hegemony though Weber agrees that actors are sometimes unconscious with their actions. Weber perceives collectivities as being conceptual abstractions, but he is unable to account for structural inequalities, while Gramscis State and party can be perceived as ideal-type constructs according to his perspective of class of class action. Thus on several aspects, Gramsci accounts for deficiencies in Webers account on both bourgeois and proletarian classes unlike the individual. According to Weber class is heterogeneous in collective action and it is through status groups that the means for Gramcis hegemony are portrayed and the difference according to Weber is one of interpretation as was not convinced that values or ideology could result in a difference in realities of social structure at a bureaucratic stage. Gramcis ideology dominated and it is here that Gramsci and Weber agree. According to Gramscis philosophy of praxis, ideologies are arbitrary and must be combated for reasons of political struggle so as to make the governed to feel intellectually independent (Gramsci, 1988: 196). This is built on Webers argument of collectivities being results of the sum of individual actions. Gramsci continues to build on these ideas by defending ideology as being a social fact, hence he states that: To reinforce the conception of historical bloc in which precisely material forces are the content and ideologies are the form, though this distinction between form and content has purely indicative value, since the material forces would be inconceivable historically without form and the individual fancies without the material forces. (Gramsci, 1988: 200). Conclusion Gramsci explores factors which might play a role in arresting historical change as he (Gramsci) shifts his attention away from the material, economic and objective factor of Marx dialectic to the theoretical, subjective or supernatural factor and Holub Renate calls this shift as the beginning of western Marxism (50) because on the basis of Marxist paradigm contexts, Gramsci develops interest in understanding the complexity of the real of the super-structural while relating it to the economic basis There are crossovers in Weberian perception of legitimate domination and Gramscis imposed hegemony as they are both dependent on concept and Max Weber admits that the aspect of legitimacy has to be perceived in the same way as Gramscis hegemony. Does it mean that they shared a similar methodology? This question arises since they were both anti-economist and to some degree anti-positivistic. Critical analysis of their views makes one wonder whether Gramsci knew effects of Weberian status groups in civil society as he took the hegemonistic idea above the basis of economicism even though domination according to Gramsci was based on class.

Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ Essay -- Movie Film Essays

Mel Gibson’s The Passion of the Christ Despite the rebuke of Jewish and Christian communities in our culture today, Jews and Christians have faced a thickening wall of inter-faith tension for quite a while; it is an issue our society does not often bring to the forefront among popular current events.   However, the release of Mel Gibson’s film, The Passion of the Christ, not only drew out the results of this tension among Jewish and Christian communities, but also reinforced those age-old tensions in our society.   Various Christian denominations have responded by bringing attention to their respective condemnations of anti-Semitism, and stressing the importance of inter-faith tranquility between Jews and Christians, bringing to light the common elements of the two faiths while respectfully acknowledging the differences.   These concerns, addressed hitherto, do not just come from biased faith communities 4, but from objective sources as well, concerned merely with the preservation of peaceful relations among several groups, such as the Anti-Defamation League (ADL).   While the ADL has admitted it cannot and will likely never have any evidence by which to accuse Mr. Gibson of being an anti-Semite, it does fear effects of the film on strengthening current waves of anti-Semitism, as well as creating an inaccurate image among impressionable observers unfamiliar with Jewish or Christian theological teachings 1.   Mr. Gibson has, wittingly or unwittingly, reinforced these tensions by following the film up with a harsh branding of all non-Christians as followers of Satan, a message that Jewish and Christian leaders alike fear could become the demise of inter-faith relations among Jews and Christians around the globe, as Dr. David Elco... ... 12 Feb. 2004.   Obtained from http://www.ajc.org/InTheMedia/OpinionsDetail.asp?did=202&pid=2091.   7) Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.   ?Declaration of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America to the Jewish Community.?   18 Apr. 1994.   Obtained from http://www.elca.org/ecumenical/interfaithrelations/jewish/declaration.html.   8) Fisher, Eugene.   ?National Workshop on Christian-Jewish Relations.?   23 Sep. 1996.   Obtained from http://www.ibiblio.org/bgreek/archives/96-08/1004.html.   9) The Pontifical Biblical Commission.   ?The Jewish People and their Sacred Scriptures in the Christian Bible.?   Vatican Press; 2002.   Obtained at http://www.bigbrother.net/~mugwump/jcrelations/. 10) Sandmel, David Fox.   ?The Passion of the Christ ? Jewish Reaction and Commentary.?   Obtained from http://www.elca.org/ecumenical/interfaithrelations/thepassion/jewish_reaction.html.  

Age Of Jackson Essay -- essays research papers

The Age of Jackson, written by Arthur M. Schlesinger, focuses on the long lasting effects of Andrew Jackson on democracy and American politics. The novel starts off with Jackson’s life story, a lowerclass boy from the west, raised by a single mother. After finding financial success on his own, he became well known for his military exploits, being a crucial factor in the Battle of New Orleans, and the acquisition of Florida from the Spanish. After the brief account of Jackson’s life, the author moves on to his administration, and stays with that topic for most of the book. By the time Jackson came to power, the nation had been drastically changed by the Industrial Revolution. The simple, pastoral, agricultural lifestyle was being replaced by the manufacturing world, of cities and factories. Politically, the nation was in great turmoil. There was still an everlasting debate among men in power, over what should prevail, the rights of the states, or the rights of the Federal Government. If not for several personal reasons, Jackson would have been a staunch advocator of states rights. The right to vote was still a major issue, the middle class feeling robbed of power in governmental decisions, the upperclass feeling threatened by the growth of the middleclass. However, Jackson brought with him many new ideas and principles. Since he himself had very modest roots, he sympathized with the middle and lower classes. He had worked for everything he had of value in life, and he acknow...

Death and the Regeneration of Life :: essays research papers

Death and the Regeneration of Life Death and the Regeneration of Life written by Maurice Bloch and Jonathan Parry focuses on the significance of symbols of fertility and rebirth in funeral rituals. Their book includes many theories that anthropologist have studied with the idea of life and death. The idea of death and the regeneration of life changes with each culture and tradition. Everyone has his or her own opinion of how it shall work. With the help of many contributors to the book, one is able to read the different types of ways some cultures value their own rituals. The notions of fertility and sexuality often have a considerable prominence in funeral practices. These practices have excited the attention of anthropologists for almost one hundred years. It all began with Swiss anthropologist Bachofen in 1859. Bachofen was one of the first anthropologists to focus any attention on mortuary symbolism. In 1859, he published his first book Versuch uber Grabsymbolik der Alten, meaning "An essay on ancient mortuary symbolism" (1). He focused most of his study with the Greek and Roman symbolism, particularly as manifested in the Dionysian and Orphic mystery cults. He started by studying the significance of eggs as symbols of fertility and femininity in Roman tombs and in funerary games. Each of the eggs was painted half-black and half-white, representing the passage of night and day and the re-birth of life after death (1). After Bachofen's study he believed that, "The funeral rite glorifies nature as a whole, with its twofold life and de ath giving principle†¦That is why the symbols of life are so frequent in the tomb." (1). After Bachofen's studies, many other writers and anthropologists began to study his themes and other themes related to the topic. For example, J. Frazer took Bachofen's ideas and looked more at the materials of ancient mystery cults. His question was, "How could killing be a rite of fertility and renewal, and in particular how does the killing of a divine king help regenerate the fertility of the community?" With questions similar to Frazer's, other anthropologists have questioned themselves all the time. Many could not understand the theme of life and death. For many years, anthropologists would take works from others and try to combine them to make them more understandable. With all the different essays written throughout of the years, one is now able to compare the differences between death related practices in different societies.

History of Immigration †Movie Gangs of New York Essay

Although Martin Scorsese’s 2002 film â€Å"Gangs of New York† purports to be an historical film which recounts ethnic based gang rivalries in 1863 New York City, the film relies heavily on poetic-license, accentuating violence and a typical Hollywood â€Å"good versus evil† story-line, rather than delving into the historical specificities and realistic detail. While it is almost certainly true that Gangs captures the flavor and mythopoetic spirit of America’s ethnically diverse past and the violence and tensions which seethed during the American Civil, it is equally true that the historical themes with which Gangs deals are of a secondary nature to its main thrust: which is to produce a slick, and profitable film. So, while the movie deals with a tremendously important historical period in American history, the historical background â€Å"is incidental to Scorsese’s larger vision of reminding Americans of their violent past† 1 and, as such, the film’s viewpoints regarding immigration are abstraction from history and not representative of history itself. That said, the film’s portrayal of immigration is to show it as a bloody, tremendously difficult process, a sort of pressure-cooker where the amalgam of cultures clashed in a violent soup, which, itself produced a unity through an altogether new culture, an American culture, born through a traumatic and protracted birth-struggle. This vision is a romantic vision which simplifies the complex realities of the history of immigration in America in the nineteenth century. Scorsese, as mentioned, is not interested in depicting history, but to use the verisimilitude of history, the details and gritty realism of historical record, to paint a dramatically believable portrait of myth: a myth describing the birth of American culture in the fiery crucible of ethnic prejudice and competition. Historical detail is a device, not a theme: â€Å"while Gangs is accurate in detail, it is distorted and mistaken in its larger characterizations and interpretation. This should not be surprising: Gangs of New York is a moneymaking enterprise. † 2 If the film’s relevance to history is not one of accurate portrayal and realistic delving into the lives and events of the era depicted, then from where does its importance to history derive? The answer to that question lies in the fact that while â€Å"Gangs of New York† may play fast and loose with historical accuracy, while it may simplify the complex sociological realities of intercultural integration — or lack thereof — in America’s war-torn past, the film remains faithful to a central, thematic idea which is also a core-reality of American history: that a nation which is ethnically diverse but upholds individual liberty must in the end cast-away the ethnic and racial barriers and competitions of the â€Å"Old World† in order to actualize the opportunities of the future. That core-idea is a core-principal of American Democracy and it is a principle by which American history, including the American Civil War, has turned on as though upon an axis. The great value, historically speaking, of â€Å"Gangs of New York† is not in its depiction of history or its re-creation of historical events, but in the film’s vision of racism of cultural division and of American Democracy as a â€Å"melting pot† and also an ideal which transcends race or specific culture. The problem in the presentation of this vision is that the Hollywood â€Å"hero and villian† paradigm, along with a stock formula of violence and greed, results in a film which buries these important themes beneath a slick â€Å"whitewash† and this is: â€Å"a foolish simplification, a stereotype, and not the business of historians. Rather, the problem with Gangs is that it wants us to think that Irish gangsters were â€Å"good† by ignoring their racism while it wants to make us think others are â€Å"bad† because they are racist. â€Å" This kind of pretzel-logic may make for an interesting and immediately understandable film, but it does little to shed light on history or on the diffusion of cultural tensions in America. The film is conspicuously incompatible with a detailed or immersive reading of history. I do not personally belive that â€Å"Gangs of New York† accurately depicts the feelings of the people at the time or even the historical tensions themselves. Instead, the film â€Å"Without the veneer of historical righteousness[†¦ ] is just another Scorsese bloodbath among white men. With that in mind, there is merit in the film’s mythopoetic imaging of the emotional energy which explodes from America’s cultural diversity. Unfortunately, â€Å"Gangs of New York† fails to depict substantive and historically accurate characters who — if shown realistically — would be comprised of multi-faceted and perhaps contradictory impulses and beliefs. In conclusion, while Martin Scorsese’s â€Å"Gangs of New York† faithfully represents the formulaic, Hollywood notion of slick, effective commercial film-making, the film fails to faithfully represent the historical period from which is ostensibly draws its setting, theme, and characters. While immigration can and should be rightfully regarded as a part of America’s mythopoetic past and also its mythopoetic identity, the historical realities of immigration and the actual historical ramifications of the cultural pressure-cooker that helped to birth America are absent from â€Å"Gangs of New York. † In their place, broad generalization, ethnic stereotyping, epic contrasts of good and evil, and the classical arc of the hero-myth are used to both simplify and stylize an aspect of American history which is too nuanced and too complex to be accurately depicted through such an approach. It is possible that â€Å"Gangs of New York† will inform a significant portion of its audience with the flavor of an historical period they might have otherwise missed observing altogether. However, in all liklihood, those who are stimulated to study this time-period by Scorsese’s poetic vision, will find themselves startled, and perhaps confused, by the amount of drama and profound thematic issue which were left out of â€Å"Gangs of New York. â€Å"

Colligative Properties

Name: JOANNA CELESTE M. QUINTANA Date performed: NOV. 12, 2012 Section: C-1L Date submitted: NOV. 21, 2012 Group Number: 3 Exercise No. 2 COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES (Full Report) I. INTRODUCTION Colligative properties In liquid solutions, particles are close together and the solute molecules or ions disrupt intermolecular forces between the solvent molecules, causing changes in those properties of the solvent that depend in intermolecular attraction. For example, the freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the of the pure solvent and the boiling point is higher.Colligative properties of solution are those that depend on the concentration of solute particles in the solution, regardless of what kinds of particles are present the greater the concentration of any solute, the lower the freezing point and the higher the boiling point of a solution. FREEZING POINT LOWERING A liquid begins to freeze when temperature is lowered to the substance’s freezing point and the first few molecules cluster together into a crystal lattice to form a tiny quantity of solid.As long as both solid and liquid phases are present at the freezing point, the rate of crystallization equals the rate of melting and there is a dynamic equilibrium. When a solution freezes, a few molecules of solvent cluster together to form pure solid solvent and a dynamic equilibrium is set up between the solution and the solid solvent. In the case of a solution, the molecules in the liquid in contact with the solid solvent are not all solvent molecule.The rate at which molecules move from solution to solid is therefore smaller that in the pure liquid to achieve dynamic equilibrium there must be a corresponding smaller rate of escape of molecules from solid crystal lattice. This slower rate occurs at a lower temperature and so the freezing point of the solution is lower than that of liquid solvent. The change in freezing point ? Tf is proportional to the concentration of the solute in the same way as the boiling point elevation. ?Tf = Kf ? msolute ? ?soluteHere also, the proportionality constant Kf depends on the solvent and not the kind of solute and isolute represents the number of particles per formula unti of solute. For water, the freezing point constant is -1. 86 oC-kg/mole. Freezing point or melting point is the temperature of transition between solid and liquid. Melting point can be measured more accurately than freezing points. This is becauses so in freezing point measurements, supercooling may occur which would yield a lower than sslkdjs freezing (melting point).CHANGES IN VAPOUR PRESSURE: RAOULT’S LAW At the surface of an aqueous solution, there are molecules of water as well as ions or molecules from the solute. Water molecules can leave the liquid and enter the gas phase, exerting a vapour pressure. However, there are not as many water molecules at the surface as in pure water, because some of them have been displaced by dissolved ions or molecules/ ther efore, not as many water molecules are available to leave the liquid surface, and the vapour pressure is lower than that of pure water at a given temperature.From this analysis, it should make senses that the vapour pressure of the solovent above the solution, Psolvent, solution, that is , to their mole fraction. Thus, since Psolvent ? Xsolvent, we can write Psolvent = Xsolvent ? K (where K is a constant). This equation tells you that, if there are only half as many solvent molecules present at the surface of a solution as at the surface of the pure liquid, then the vapour pressure of the solvent above the solution will only be half as great as that of the pure solvent at the same temperature. If we are dealing only with pure solvent, the above equation becomes Posolvent = Xsolvent ?K where Posolvent is the vapour pressure of the pure solvent and Xsolvent is equal to 1. This means that Posolvent = K; that is, the constant K is just the vapour pressure of the pure sovent. Substitutin g for K in the foremost equation, we arrive at an equation called Raoult’s law: Psolvent = Xsolvent ? Posolvent If the solution contains more than one volatile component, then Raoult’s law can be written for any one such component, A, as PA = XA ? PoA Like this ideal gas law, Raoult’s law is a description of a simplified model of a solution.An ideal solution is one that obey Raoult’s law/ although most solution are not ideal, just as most gases are not ideal, we use Raoult’s law as good approximation to solution behaviour. In any solution, the mole fraction of the solvent will always be less than 1, so the vapour pressure of the solvent over an ideal solution (Psolvent) must be less than the vapour pressure of the pure solvent (Posolvent). This vapour pressure lowering, ? Psolvent, is given by ? Psolvent = Psolvent ? Posolventwhere Psolvent < Posolvent Boiling point elevationRaoult’s law tells us that the vapour pressure of the solvent over a solution must be lower than that of the pure solvent. Assume for example that you have a solution of a non-volatile solute in the volatile solvent benzene ? ? ? ? II. MATERIALS A. Reagents 4. 00 g naphthalene 0. 20 g unknown solute A unknown solute B (assigned amount per group) distilled water B. Apparatus 250-mL beaker 400-mL beaker 100-mL graduated cylinder test tubes thermometer iron stand, iron ring, iron clamp hot plate C. Other Apparatus wire gauze tissue paper graphing paper timer III. PROCEDURE Freezing Point of NaphthaleneIn a clean and dry test tube, 2. 0 g of naphthalene was weighed. To measure the temperature while heating, a thermometer was suspended by tissue paper at the mouth of the test tube. It was placed in a water bath with the water level above the sample in the test tube. To avoid the contact of the test tube to the bottom of the bath, it was supported by an iron clamp. The water bath was then heated until the entire sample has melted and until the temperatur e of the sample reached 90o C. The flame was put off and the temperature reading was recorded every 15 seconds until the temperature has fallen to 70oC.The set up was put aside for the next part of the experiment. Data gathered were tabulated and plotted for analysis and evaluation. Freezing Point Depression of Naphthalene Pre weighed 0. 20 g of unknown solute A was added to the previous set up of naphthalene. The same procedure was done with it. The thermometer was again suspended at the mouth of the test tube by tissue paper. With the help of iron clamp, it was again placed in a water bath, with the water level above the sample in the test tube, to avoid contact to the bottom of the bath.The water bath was then heated until the entire sample of unknown solute A and naphthalene has melted. When the temperature reached 90oC, the flame was put off. The temperature reading was recorded every 15 seconds until the temperature has fallen to 70oC. Data was also tabulated and plotted toget her with the data from freezing point of naphthalene. Boiling Point of Water In a 250-mL beaker, 100-mL of distilled water was boiled until it completely boiled. The temperature reading was recorded. In a separate 250-mL beaker, 0. 20 g of unknown solute B was dissolved in 100-mL distilled water.This was also heated until it finally boiled. The boiling point was also recorded. It was tabulated together with the boiling points of solutions with varying amounts of solute from other groups. Comparison was made for evaluation of the results. IV. DATA/OBSERVATIONS Table 1. 1. Observations on cooling of naphthalene at 15-second intervals. Time (sec. )Temperature (oC)Appearance 1590clear liquid 3090clear liquid 4587clear liquid 6086clear liquid 7585clear liquid 9085clear liquid 10584clear liquid 12084clear liquid 13583clear liquid 15083clear liquid 16582clear liquid 18081clear liquid 9581clear liquid 21080clear liquid 22580clear liquid 24079clear liquid 25579clear liquid 27078clear liquid 28577clear liquid 30077clear liquid 31576solidification 33075solidification 34575 36075 37575 39075 40575 42075 43575 45075 46575 48075 49575 51075 52575 54075 55575 57075 58575 60075 61575 63075 64574 66074 67574 69074 70574 72073 73573 75073 76572 78072 79571 81070 Mass of naphthalene used (g): 2. 00 g Table 1. 2. Observations on cooling of solution of naphthalene and unknown solute at 15-second interval. Time (sec. )Temperature (oC)Appearance 1590clear liquid 3090clear liquid 587clear liquid 6086clear liquid 7585clear liquid 9085clear liquid 10584clear liquid 12084clear liquid 13583clear liquid 15083clear liquid 16582clear liquid 18081clear liquid 19581clear liquid 21080clear liquid 22580clear liquid 24079clear liquid 25579clear liquid 27078clear liquid 28577clear liquid 30077clear liquid 31576clear liquid 33075 34575 36075 37575 39075 40575 42075 43575 45075 46575 48075 49575 51075 52575 Mass of naphthalene used (g): 2. 00 g mass of unknown solute B (g): 0. 20 g Table 1. 3. Data on freezing point depression of naphthalene. Mass of naphthalene used (g)2. 0 g Mass of unknown solute A used (g)0. 20 g Mass of solution (g)2. 20 g Freezing point of pure naphthalene (oC)75 oC Freezing point of solution (oC)73 oC Freezing point difference of pure naphthalene and of solution (oC) Molality of solution (mol/kg) Moles of solute used (mole) Molecular mass of solute (g/mole) Table 1. 4. Summary of data on boiling points of solutions with varying amounts of solute. Group No. Amount of solute B used (g)Boiling point (oC) –100 10. 5099. 0 21. 0090. 0 31. 5099. 5 42. 0099. 5 52. 50100 V. DISCUSSION ? ? ? ? VI. CONCLUSION ? VII. LITERATURE CITED/BIBLIOGRAPHY